1. Discuss the development of literature and fine arts during the period of Guptas.
In ancient India, art was largely inspired by religion. Survivals of non- religious art from ancient India are few. Buddhism gave great impetus to art in Maurya and post-Maurya times Led to the creation of massive stone pillars, the hewing of beautiful caves, and the raising of high stupas or relic towers.
The stupas appeared as dome-like structures on round bases, principally of stone. Innumerable images of the Buddha were sculptured.
During the Gupta period a life-size copper image of the Buddha of more than 6 feet was made.
During the Gupta period beautiful images of the Buddha were fashioned at Sarnath and Mathura, but the finest specimens of Buddhist art in Gupta times are the Ajanta paintings.
paintings covered the period from the first century BC to the seventh century ad, most of them relate to Gupta times. They depict various events in the life of Gautama Buddha and the previous Buddhas whose birth stories are related in the Jatakas.
These paintings are lifelike and natural, and the brilliance of their colours has not faded even after fourteen centuries. However, there is nothing to show that the Guptas were the patrons of the Ajanta paintings.
The Gupta period was poor in terms of architecture. All that we find .ire a few temples made of brick in UP and a stone temple. The brick temples of Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur, and Deogarh in Jhansi may be mentioned. The Buddhist university at Nalanda was set up in the fifth century, and its earliest structure, made of brick, relates to this period.
Literature:
The Gupta period is remarkable for the production of secular literature, which consisted of a fair degree of ornate court poetry. Bhasa was an important poet in the early phase of the Gupta period and wrote thirteen plays. He wrote in Sanskrit, but his dramas also contain a substantial amount of Prakrit. He was the author of a drama called Dradiracharudatta, which was later refashioned as Mrichchhakatika or the Little Clay Cart by Shudraka.
Gupta period particularly famous is the work of Kalidasa who lived in the second half of the fourth and the first half of the fifth century. He was the greatest poet of classical Sanskrit literature and wrote Abhijnanashakuntalam which is very highly regarded in world literature.
The plays produced in India during the Gupta period have two common features. First, they are all comedies; no tragedies are found.
The two great epics, namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were almost completed by the fourth century AD.
The Puranas follow the lines of the epics, and the earlier ones were finally compiled in Gupta times.
The period also saw the compilation of various Smritis or the lawbooks in which social and religious norms were written in verse.
The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on the work of Panini and Patanjali.
This period is particularly memorable for the compilation of Amarakosha by Amarasimha, who was a luminary in the court of Chandragupta II. This lexicon is learnt by heart by students learning Sanskrit in the traditional way.
Science and Technology:
In mathematics, the period saw, in the fifth century, a work called Aryabhatiya written by Aryabhata who belonged to Pataliputra A Gupta inscription of AD 448 from Allahabad district suggests that the decimal system was known in India at the beginning of the fifth century.
In the field of astronomy, a book called Romaka Sidhanta was compiled, its title indicating that it was influenced by Greek and Roman ideas.
The Gupta craftsmen distinguished themselves by their work in iron and bronze. Bronze images of the Buddha began to be produced on a considerable scale because of the knowledge the smiths had of advanced metal technology. With regard to iron objects, the best example is the iron pillar found at Mehrauli in Delhi.
2. Do you think that Indians in the ancient period indulged only in metaphysical things not in development of science? Justify your answer with clear evidence(s).
Indians were also excelled in development of science The Idea of Zero
The Decimal System
Numeral Notations
Fibbonacci Numbers
Binary Numbers
Chakravala method of Algorithms
Ruler Measurements
A Theory of Atom
The Heliocentric Theory Wootz Steel
Smelting of Zinc
Seamless Metal Globe Plastic Surgery Cataract Surgery Ayurveda Iron-Cased Rockets
3. (a) Discuss the contribution of Kabir and Gurunanak to the Bhakthi movement.
In the ninth century Sankara started a Hindu revivalist movement giving a new orientation to Hinduism. From that time onwards the bhakthi movement was started Moreover, there was a reaction against the Advaita concept of Nirgunabrahman (God without attributes) with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes). Among the disciples of Ramananda the most famous was Kabir. He was born near Banaras to a brahmin widow. But he was brought up by a Muslim couple who were weavers by profession.Kabir
Kabir's object was to reconcile Hindus and Muslims and establish harmony between the two sects. He denounced idolatry and rituals and laid great emphasis on the equality of man before God. He emphasised the essential oneness of all religions by describing Hindus and Muslims 'as pots of the same clay'. To him Rama and Allah, temple and mosque were the same.
He regarded devotion to god as an effective means of salvation and urged that to achieve this one must have a pure heart, free from cruelty, dishonesty, hypocrisy and insincerity.
He is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints and his followers are called Kabirpanthis.
Guru Nanak
Another well-known saint-preacher of the medieval period was Guru Nanak, founder of the Sikh religion and a disciple of Kabir. He was born in Talwandi near Lahore. He denounced caste distinctions and rituals like bathing in holy rivers.
His conception of religion was highly practical and sternly ethical.
He exhorted people to give up selfish- ness, falsehood and hypocrisy and to lead a life of truth, honesty and kindness. '
Abide pure amidst the impurities of the world' was one of his famous sayings.
His life was dedicated to establishing harmony between Hindus and Muslims.
His followers were known as Sikhs.
(b) Illustrate Mughal official histories and auto-biographical works.
Regarding autobiographies the memorials of Babar and Jahangir to works of Jauhar Gulbadan Begam contain valuable information about the Mughals. The court chroniclers of the Mughal India become quite important from the reign of Akbar the Great and they were shown respect even in the days of Aurangzeb. The two most outstanding productions in the field of historical studies during Akbar’s regime were Abul Fazal’s Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari.
Abdul Kadir Badaoni, a courtier of Akbar, wrote Muntakabat-i-Tarikhi which dealt with matters like the Emperor’s religious belief.
Besides, official chronicles like Padashahnama, Alamgirnama and Maasir-iAlamgiri, Khafi Khan’s Muntakhabd-ul-Lubad have their importance as source material for the later Mughal age. Apart from these another important source relating to Mughal India can be collected from Rajput literature in the form of ballads and bardic chronicles.
At the same time we can also depend on the Marathi chronicles for the later Mughal period. In this connection we can refer to the Sabhasad Bakhar as a quite dependable historical work.
Similarly Gurumukhi works and more particularly the famous Granth Sahib are of considerable help. Many European traders, travellers, and missionaries visited India during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Among these foreign people the names of the Portuguese Barbosa (1500-1516), Ralph Fitch, Jerome Xavier, Tavernier, Francois Bernier, Manucci are quite important. They have enriched the historical literature about India for the period of the Mughal rule.
The patrons of art and architecture during Vijayanagar Empire were the inheritors of the rich traditions of the Cholas, Pallavas and the Hoysalas. Elucidate.
Approach: Briefly introduce Vijayanagar Empire.
Write about the influence of: Cholas, Pallavas, and Hoysalas.
Mention the distinct elements of Vijayanagar style.
Conclude.
Answer:
The vast expanse of land in the southern Deccan comprised the kingdom of Vijayanagar from 1336-1650
A.D approximately. The famous kingdom was ruled by a series of able monarchs who were great patrons of art, architecture and letters. Magnificent structures were erected during the heydays of the empire, famous among them like Hampi monuments find a place in UNESCO world heritage list.
Vijayanagar style of architecture drew upon the traditions of various earlier traditions like:
CHOLAS
1. The Chola style large gopurams can be found in Vijayanagar temples like Virupaksha temple at Hampi.
2. Large mandapas built at various temples.
3. Vimana of the Vijayanagar temples are a continuance of the Cholas architectural tradition ex:
Veerabhadra temple at Lepakshi.
4. Nandi bull at the entrance of the temple.
5. Murals were painted on the walls and ceilings of the temple .Ex: Virupaksha temple.
PALLAVAS:
The Pallavas were instrumental in the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone temples. This finds reflection in Vijayanagar era temples too. Pallavas constructed pillared halls in their temples;
Vijayanagar temples like Aghoreshwara temple in Karnataka also incorporated this style.
HOYSALAS: Hoysalas preferred soapstone as the temple building material; it was also used in
Vijayanagar reliefs and sculptures.
Hoysala style open mandapas were incorporated in many temples in the Vijayanagar Empire like Vittala temple at Hampi etc.
DISTINCT FEATURES OF VIJAYANAGARA STYLE:
1. Kalyanmandapa- it was meant for ritual purpose, although a unique feature.
2. PILLARS – they were distinct features as the manner in which they were executed was complex.
3. Horse motif on pillars.
2. The ancient Silk Road played very important role in spread and exchange of Indian cultural ideas in Asia. Elucidate the given statement with examples.
Approach: Give a brief introduction of silk route and its origin.
Mention the spread and exchange of ideas in ART and architecture, Religion, trade, visitors etc.
Conclude your answer accordingly.
Answer:
The Silk Route or Silk Road refers to a network of ancient trade routes connecting Asia, Europe and
Africa. Extending more than 6,500 kms, the Silk Route was majorly used to transport Chinese Silk to
Europe through Central Asia from 2nd Century BC. Silk Route’s greatest contribution to world history
was not mere trading of few commodities but exchange of ideas, culture, influence on art and
architecture and science between Asia, Europe and Africa. It was the world’s first information
superhighway.
A section of the South West Silk Route crossed Lhasa and entered India through Nathu La from China whereas another section of the route crossed Burma (present Myanmar) and entered India through Assam (Kamrup) further to the sea ports of Bengal and present Bangladesh.
RELIGION:
Buddhism: The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road began in the 1st century CE,.
Buddhist monks travelled far and wide across the Eurasian region and many Buddhist monasteries were established and many figures of Buddha were erected or carved on the Silk route. Ex: Bamiyan Buddha in Afghanistan.
Hinduism: South Indian kingdoms like Pandyas, Cholas carried on flourishing trade with the south-east Asian countries and Indo-China region through the maritime silk routes. As a result Hinduism was introduced into Indonesia and Malaysia by Silk Road merchants and priests travelling the maritime trade routes from India and Arabia. Ex: Champa kingdom in modern Vietnam.
Christianity: The first Christian saint to travel to India for the spread of Christianity was Thomas during the reign of Gondophernes.
Islam: From the seventh century AD, Arab Muslims traveled to China by the Silk Road or the sea route to spread Islam.
Sufism: It is through the Silk Road that Sufism prospered; along with the culture of mysticism and zikrs.
Sufism — the mystical Islamic practice through which one seeks out the true meaning of divine love and knowledge via a personal connection with God — came to India in the 12th century through Moinuddin Chisti.
Meghalaya to commemorate the sacrifices of Tirot Sing, the legendary freedom fighter who was hanged to death by British rulers in the 19th century. Who was Tirot Sing? U Tirot Sing was one of the chiefs of the khasi people in the early 18th century. He fought against British attempts to take control of the Khasi hills. He died on 17 July, 1835. His death is commemorated as U Tirot Sing Day in Meghalaya.
About Swami Vivekananda Born in Calcutta as Narendranath Dutta, Swami Vivekananda was the chief disciple of Ramakrishna Pramahansa. He contributed immensely to the concept of nationalism in colonial India and helped in agitating the youth of the country through his writings and speeches. His concept of nationalism is based on Humanism and Universalism. He is credited with raising interfaith awareness and taught people to get rid of self-inflicted bondages and resultant miseries. He condemned the Hindu caste system and propagated unity based on spiritual ideas. He introduced Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the western world. Brought Hinduism to the World Stage through his address at the Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in 1893. In 1897, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission (headquartered in Belur Math in Howrah, West Bengal) as a humanitarian organisation. Published two papers: Parbudha Bharat in English and Ubodhana in Bengali
Carnatic music, Karnāṭaka saṃgīta or Karnāṭaka saṅgītam is one of the two sub-genres of Indian classical music that evolved from Hindu traditions; the other being Hindustani music. This type of music is mainly associated with the southern states of the country. Carnatic music pays a huge emphasis on vocals. Most compositions are to be sung even when they are being played on instruments. Like Hindustani music, Carnatic music also relies on two main elements; Raga and Tala. Violin, mridangam, tambura, ghatam, kanjira, morsing, venu flute, veena and chitraveena are some of the musical instruments used in performances.
Savarkar
is credited with coining the term Hindutva. He was a freedom fighter, social reformer, writer, orator and a patriot, was called Swatantryaveer. He was an Indian nationalist and leading figure in the Hindu Mahasabha.
Savarkar had started his secret revolutionary society called the Abhinav Bharat (similar to Young Italy of Mazzini) in India in 1905. He was the author of the famous book “The Indian War of Independence-1857”.
RANI GAIDINLIU
Rani Gaidinliu was the first female freedom fighter of India from Manipur.
She was a political and spiritual leader of the Heraka faith.
Through armed resistance, she quickly transformed a religious-indigenous rebellion into a revolutionary movement for independence. Her political struggle was based on Gandhian principles of Satyagraha, non-violence, self-reliance. In 1932 at the age of 16, she was arrested and was sentenced to life imprisonment by the then British India Government. Rani title: In 1937, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru had met her at Shillong Jail and promised to pursue her release. During this time, Nehru gave her title of Rani (Queen) and since then she gained local popularity as Rani Gaidinliu. After India’s independence in 1947, she was released from the jail and continued to work for the upliftment of people till her death.
Guru Gobind Singh
He was the 10th Sikh guru born in Bihar. He forwarded the teachings of preceding Sikh Gurus by promoting social institutions like langar (community kitchen), sangat and kirtan (mass prayer) that acted as unifying agencies. He was a poet and philosopher credited with writing ‘Dasm granth’ which had a collection of hymns, philosophical writings, autobiography etc. He is also credit of compiling the Guru Granth Sahib/Adi Granth, that became the last and the eternal guru of Sikhism. He was the founder of a warrior community called Khalsa (saint soldiers) to fight injustice and oppression and to protect truth and justice. Eg. Fight social exclusion, Fight religious oppression from tyrants like Aurangzeb. He appraised Mughals of the misdeeds towards Sikhs in his letter to Aurangzeb called Zafarnama. He also fought him in Battle of Muktsar in 1705. He was named Hind ka Pir/Saint of India by Bahadur Shah Zafar
Q.1 "Two and a half century of the Rashtrakuta rule witnessed a very high achievements in the fields of sculpture and architecture." Explain.
Q. 2 Write a short note on the following: (a) Lingayats (b) Ajivikas
Q. 3 "Despite having common basic features like shruti, swara, gama, raga, taal, etc., Hindusthani and Carnatic music systems differ in myriad aspects." Elaborate
Q.4) “Architecture traditionally, i.e., before the arrival of British on the Indian soil, was from the social point of view, a creation of spectacular sculptural forms hewn out of stone.” Analyze.
Traditional stone architecture of India is perceived as a creation of spectacular sculptural forms without much social relevance, supported by the following examples: Initially started with creation of grand and magnificent stupas adorned with beautiful carvings and images. Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati schools produced beautiful images of Buddha. Temple architecture began during Gupta period, latter flourished under various rulers. They were built to show the wealth and power of rulers. Mughal emperors built tombs, minarets, mausoleums, arches which reflected their wealth and glory. However various other architectural forms have shown their importance for other people Monolithic pillars erected by Asoka, carried his message to people. Chaityas, viharas and monasteries served Budhha and Jaina followers. Temples became centre of social activities in towns. When we compare it with the British architecture in India, we see that most of the latter ones have served many other purposes, but not all of them. They built churches, administrative and residential buildings such as Parliament house, Connaught place, Victoria terminus of Mumbai. But some others like India Gate, Gateway of India and Victoria memorial reflect mainly imperial glory. Architecture in India during every period had some sort of social importance, which kept on increasing with time.
Q.2) “Hindi is a direct descendant of the Sanskrit language through Prakrit and Apabhramsa.” Narrate the evolution of Hindi as a language until modern times, giving suitable literary examples wherever necessary.
Ans) Hindi, a part of Indo-Aryan family of languages, is a descendent of Vedic Sanskrit. Prakrit that evolved from Vedic Sanskrit, and Pali that from Prakrit gave birth to another language, Apabhramsa which later gave way to Khari Boli, the dialect on which today’s standard Hindi is based. Evolution of the Hindi literature can be divided into four stages. a) Adikal – Period between 10th century-14th century A.D. During this period the hindi poetry highlighted religious ideas and praised the heroic deeds of rulers and warriors. Ex: Chandbardai’s Prithviraj Raso.
b) Bhaktikal – Period between 14th century-17th century A.D. Bhaktikal poetry is divided between Nirgunas and Sagunas. Nirgunas believed in a formless God and Sagunas believed in human form of God.Nirgunas were further divided into two more groups. First group believed in a single God ex. Kabir,Guru Nanak, whereas other group believed that through love one can realise God ex. Jayasi. On the other hand Sagunas were the followers of Rama and Krishna ex. Tulsi Das, Surdas, Meerabai. c) Ritikal- Period between 17th century-19th century A.D. During this period sanskrit rhetorical tradition was emulated on aspects like rasa, alankara, nayak-nayika bheda. In addition to this Brajbhasa was also used in the hindi poetry. d) Adhunikkal- Around mid of 19th century A.D. Khariboli was very much prevalent during this period. Ordinary writing in hindi too evolved during this period. Eg., Bharatendu Harishchandra, Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, Suryakant Tripathi Nirala, Prem Chand and Harivansharai Bachchan.
Q.3) “Besides entertainment, puppetry serves as an applied art form, conveying meaningful messages and stories, thus creating a more moral and value-laden society”. Examine the various forms of puppetry and their influence on the Indian history as an art form.
India, considered as the land of puppets showcases different kind of puppetry, both for the purpose of entertainment and conveying moral – value laden messages to the society. Earliest reference of puppetry is traced to the Tamil epic SILAPPADIKARAM. India hosts 4 categories of puppetry 1. String puppetry – Here the limbs are connected with strings which help for faster movements of hands and legs. Eg-Kathputhli (Rajasthan) 2. Rod puppetry- An off shot of string puppetry but rods are used instead of strings .EgPutulnauch 3. Shadow puppetry – Here straight figures are created and are projected towards screen with the help of light. Eg-Ravanachaya 4. Glove puppetry – Material from cotton or leather are used. They are the smallest of all puppets. Eg-Paavakoothu (kerala) Their themes are mainly centered around epics and puranas which gives an account of India’s rich culture and heritage. During the national movement they acted as crowd pullers and often communicated message regarding freedom movement. eg, Neel Darpan.
The major audience is children and an impact on them is eventually an impact on the society. It acts a morale booster for physically and mentally challenged children. It showcases our expertise on handicrafts sector. Even now on many tourism programs puppetry is an inevitable part. TARANG tv program in Doordarshan and its viewer ratings stands testimony to this.
Q.4) “The dance-drama of Kerala, Kathakali which originated in the 17th century, literally means story-play.” Enumerate the various classical dance forms of India, and compare and contrast each dance form with Kathakali.
Ans) Indian Classical Dance has evolved from dancing rituals at the temples and have basically 3 components Nritta (pure dance), nritya (expressive dance), and Natya (abhinaya). There are eight dance forms recognised by Sahitya Natak Academi 1.Bharatanatyam is practiced by both male and female dancers. Kathakali is practiced by only male dancers. Both say stories of two epics Ramayana and Mahabarata. 2. Kathak recounts moral tales from scriptures. Costume wise Kathakali is rich, vibrant but Kathak bit simple. Both dances use hand gestures and facial expression. Kathak has fast rhythmic foot movement.
3. Mohiniyattam performed by female dancers, they were white sari embroidered with golden brocade. Here performer use eyes in a very coy, sensual manner. Kathakali has fierceful eyes also. 4. Odissi is older than Kathakali. Jewellery used made of intricate filigree silver jewellery pieces. Kathakali dancers use golden jewellery. Both dances uses costumes of bright colours. 5. Sattriya presents mythological teachings. Earlier only male performed now even women perform this dance. Uses costume made of silk. 6. Manipuri has raslila has its central theme. Dancers feet never strike the ground hard. This is not the case with Kathakali. Movement of body and feet and facial expression are subtle and aim at devotion and grace in Manipuri. 7. Kuchipudi older than Kathakali has themes of of bhagavadpurana. Usually single performace. Kathakali is performed in group and is usually performed at night.
Q.5) “Indian pottery has an ancient tradition dating back thousands of years and has never ceased to exist in it’s 4000 year old history.” Discuss the various forms, styles, stages and evolution of pottery as a skilled traditional Indian handicraft.
Ans) The evolution of Indian Pottery can be traced back to the time when agriculture made its way in human civilization i.e. neolithic age in 4000 BC onwards. The need arised with the problem of foodgrains storage and as the time passed it was used as decorative item which was patronised by various rulers who ruled over India at different times. 1. IVC – While prevalent use of pottery for the first time was seen in Indus Valley Civilization for storage purpose and decoration as well as stainer. It was painted grey ware pottery where red colour formed the base with black colour on it. 2. Mauryan age – The pottery found here was Northern black polished ware(NBPW) which was highly finished pottery and other colours were also used. 3. Kushan period(1st AD) – Indian architecture took swift positive change with the advent of many foreigners and development of Mathura and Gandhara Art which had greeco-roman influence.So pottery also took a way ahead due to patronage of Kushana rulers and foreign influence. 4. Gupta Era(4th century AD) – Gupta period saw the beginning of temple architecture and revival of hinduism which also saw the pottery prevalence as rulers supported it. 5. Delhi Sultanate and Mughals- They brought with them Iranian influence, like glazed style and were lovers of art. 6. Present day- It is used as means of livilihood by poors. They are still important can be understood by the fact that some areas are marked as geographical indicators. Even today people use it as decorative item in their homes and sometimes as a gift item.
ANswer2
The real beginning of Indian pottery began with the Indus valley civilisation which consisted primarily of Plain pottery more than painted ones. Plain pottery is generally of red clay while Black painted ware (BPW) has a fine coating of red slip on which geometric and animal designs are executed in glossy black paint. The Ochre coloured pottery is a culture of Indo-Gangetic Plain. It is contemporary to and a successor of the Indus valley civilisation. The OCP marked the last stage of the North Indian Bronze Age and was succeeded by the PGW culture. PGW culture lasted roughly from 1200 BCE -600 BCE. PGW primarily consisted of bowls and dishes characterised by a style of fine grey pottery painted with geometric pattern in black. NBPW: Roughly 6th Century marks the beginning of the NBPW phase and also the beginning of second urbanisation in India. NBPW is a glossy, shinning type of pottery which was made of very fine fabric and apparently served as the table ware of richer people.NBPW became abundant during Mauryan period. Red Pottery techniques became prominent during central Asian invasions. Glazed Pottery: This era of pottery began in the 12th century AD. This type of pottery contains a white background and has blue and green patterns. Today, pottery thrives as an art form in India with diverse styles reflecting the local culture of each and every place.
Q.6) Critically analyze the contributions of Buddha to the religion and philosophy of India. What were his main principles and how did he manage to have such a large following?
Buddha emerged as a spiritual leader during 6th century BCE and was the contemporary of Mahavira. He had profound influence in the religion and philosophy on India : Religion : 1. Buddha gave rise to a new religion Buddhism 2. Rejected the dominance of Brahmans and opened the gates of his religion to all people. 3. Preached Nirvana that is freedom from the cycle of births and death. 4. Attacked idolatry. 5. Later, due to internal problems the buddhist sect in India broke and this was filled in by the Bhakti movement. Philosophy : 1. He gave the doctrine of Ahimsa. Which was followed by great leader like Mahatma Gandhi to achieve independence. 2. Promoted the middle path. 3. He taught tolerance, compassion and equality. Buddhism as a religion rose alongwith Jainism , however, Buddhism is more widespread in other Asian countries other than India because the Hinduism was already prevalent in India and because other regions did not have a well formed religion. He managed to have such a large following mostly in Eastern Asia 1. It had patrons like the Ashoka and Kanishka who promoted Buddhism both in India and surrounding regions. 2. The simplistic nature of the religion appealed to the masses. 3. Use of language like Pali and Prakrit popularised it. 4. The kstariyas and the vaishayas were averse to the dominance of the brahmanas, hence, supported Buddhism with huge patronage.
5. Gave a better social standing to the Shudras.
Q.7) How does Abul Fazl describe the socio-economic and religious life of Medieval India? Are there any inconsistencies in his analysis?
Abul Fazal’s Ain-e-Akbari has a vivid account of the socio-economic and religious life in medieval India. Salient points are discussed below Socio-Economic life: 1. Caste system was prevalent and 16 different sub-castes arose from intermarriages 2. Choice of occupation was still limited by caste credentials 3. Land was the major source of revenue. Raja Todarmal’s lad measurement and assessment improved tax collection 4. Literature,music, art and architecture commanded royal patronage Religion 1. Religious discrimination was ended by Akbar as Jaziya and Pilgrim Tax were abolished. 2. There was greater religious freedom. Akbar’s Din-e-Ilahi tried bringing people of different faith together
3. Abul Fazal’s attempt at finding common ground between Hindu practices and Islamic beliefs betrays the existing differences.
4. Hindus were tried under Hindu laws. Abul Fazl enjoyed royal patronage of Akbar so one can imagine he was under obligation to eulogize about the emperor. In such an attempt, he bestowed occult powers upon Akbar. Eg. he said Akbar could control rain at will. On the other hand Fazal emphasizes on the need of rationality. This was a major inconsistency.
Despite its shortcomings, Abul Fazl’s profound scholarship gives a great insight into the history of medieval India
Q.8) Give an account of the impact of Islam on the Indian Culture in respect of society, religion and fine arts.
Islam had a great impact on all major aspects of Indian Culture. It can be understood under the following sub-headings: Social Life Brought visible changes to ceremonies, dresses, mannerism etc. For eg. Purdah System became widespread among upper caste women, marriages became extravagant. New interests like perfumes and scents were introduced. New fabrics from Persia were picked up by Hindu rulers and elites. Urdu as a common language became popular Religion Islam and Sufism introduced elements of love, brotherhood and equality. These assimilated into the Bhakti Movement later popularized by Kabir, Guru Nanak etc. Sikhism can be considered a direct offshoot of Islam. Though against Hindu caste system, Islam couldn’t break it down completely.
Fine Art A new culture that gave lavish patronage to artisans. Musicians like Tansen became courtmen and new styles such Ghazal and Tarana were introduced giving Hindustani music a different flavor. Glazed pottery made Indian potters world renowned. Miniature paintings synonymous with Mughal period later spread to different regions. Architecture Added a distinct Persian touch through new features like Arch and Dome style, ‘Jali Work’ for lighting inside halls, Chaar Bagh construction style later picked up by the British. Polished stone like marble or sandstone was used for the first time. Intricate geometrical design replaced human figures. An influence to begin with, Islam soon assimilated completely into the India culture and coexists till date
Q.10) Though not very useful from the point of view of a connected political history of South India, the Sangam literature portrays the social and economic conditions of its time with remarkable vividness. Comment
Q.11) “The rise of Arya Samaj may quite logically be pronounced as the outcomes of conditions imported into India by the West.” Evaluate.
Arya Samaj was necessarily a Hindu revivalist movement of 19th century. While it accepted a few progressive western ideas, it opposed the foreign nature of British rule and their cultural dominance. 1. As a revolt against intrusion of colonial culture and ideology, Arya Samaj chose to revive traditional culture with Vedic knowledge as its foundation. 2. Opposing the foreign rule, Arya Samaj called for “Aryavartha for Aryans”. 3. Christian missionaries used education and healthcare to encourage conversion. Recognising this, Dayanand Anglo Vernacular schools were started to promote western scientific education. 4. In retaliation to proselytising activities of Christians and Muslims, Arya Samaj launched Shuddhi Movement. This reconversion movement also sowed the seeds of communalism. 5. The awakening lead by Western rationalism necessitated a relook into Indian society. Arya Samaj opposed social evils like polytheism, idolatry, caste system, untouchability and superstitions. But, it sought to revive varna system based on occupation as prevalent in Vedic times.
6. Also, progressive ideas like equality to women, widow remarriage, intercaste marriages, universal brotherhood which found their way into Arya Samaj were influenced by western ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. Arya Samaj incorporated the best ideas from past and West to reform Indian society. But, its over-zealous attempt to protect Hindu society led to revival of communalism too.
Bring out similarities and dissimilarities between Madhubani painting and Kalamkari painting.
Kalamkari literally means “pen work”. Madhubani literally means “forests of honey”. Both are traditional Indian paintings. Similarities and dissimilarities between Kalamkari paintings are as follows Region – Kalamkari belongs to Andhra Pradesh region of South India. Madhubani belongs to Mithila region in the areas of Indo-Nepal border across Bihar. Themes – Similarity: Majority of Kalamkari paintings are Hindu mythological scenes; whereas Madhubani paintings include both mythology and natural objects like sun, moon, plants etc. Mostly done by women. Tools – Dissimilar: In Kalamkari paintings, a bamboo or a date palm stick with bundle of fine hair is used as brush. In Madhubani paintings, a cotton wrapped around bamboo stick is used as brush. Technique – Dissimilar: In Kalamkari, a cotton fabric is first immersed in a mixture containing cow milk and then after drying, outlines are drawn with bamboo stick. Later, vegetable dyes are applied. Pen is used to draw finer details. In Madhubani paintings, the work is done on freshly plastered mud walls. Now a days, for commercial purposes, it is done on cloth and paper also. Colours – Dissimilar: Kalamkari uses organic colours i.e. dyes are obtained from parts of plants. In Madhubani, different colours are obtained in different ways. For e.g. black from mixture of soot and cow dung, white from mixture of rice powder etc. Recognition – Similarity: Both have Geographical Indication Tag.
Q.37) ‘Shruti is “that which has been heard” and is canonical, consisting of revelation and unquestionable truth, and is considered eternal.’ Elaborate this statement in the context of the Vedas. Shruthi are canon of Hindu texts which are believed to have been transmitted from generation to generation verbally .It includes the four Vedas along with Samhitas, Bhrahmanas, Aranyakas and Early Upanishads. Shruthi is that which has been heard because it is believed that in absence of writing technologies in ancient times, these were developed and transmitted verbally by systematic methods of Listening, Memorisation and recitation. Shruthi are canonical texts in sense that they codify procedures, make rules among others. For example while Yajur Veda has directions for conducting sacrifices, Bhrahmanas explain Vedic rituals. Shruthi contains certain metaphysical questions and answers which are considered as Unquestionable truth. Concepts such as Rebirth, Caste system and Nature of god which are deep rooted in Indian society are found in Shruthi .These became unquestionable as they formed the basis for the division of society and it’s functioning. In the Absence of any authors for these texts it is argued that they have nonhuman or primordial origins, making it a revelation of god. The argument of primordial origins has also made it eternal as the beginning and end are not known. Recently the ritual of Vedic chanting has become a part of Intangible cultural list of UNESCO .Shruthi texts have fascinated scholars such as Max Muller and have also helped deconstruct ancient society of India
Q.38) How did Sufism and musical traditions enrich each other in medieval India?
Sufism encourages music as a way of deepening ones relation with God, remembering God by zikr (reciting name) sama or performance of mystical music. Sufism affecting music Reach to masses: Music as a way of worship, got greater acceptance, even among orthodox sects. Many women too were able to enjoy and contribute to sufi music Instruments: Sufi saints are credited with invention of sitar and tabla Style: It contributed to evolution of classical music. Khayal style owes a lot to sufism Linguistic richness: Before, prayers, verses etc were usually in elite class languages. As sufi saints came from different classes and linguistic groups, they contributed to music in their respective dialects. Music affecting sufism Communication: Music became a mean for sufi saints to convey their teachings to common masses. spread: With its simple to understand ideas presented through music, sufism became popular among masses and allowed for a fusion with bhakti prayers too. Patronisation: Sufi singers were patronised by elite class which also served as a mean of their sustenance. Thus music and sufism evolved with each other and became inseparable from each other in coming centuries which continues even today reflected in the music of Nusrat Fatha Ali Khan etc.
Critically evaluate the achievements of Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in Art and Architecture?
Chola, Cheras and Pandyas have been the three major dynasties of the Deep South. Their achievements in the art and architecture is as follows: Cholas: Imperial cholas continued the tradition of Pallavas in temple building. Some majestic temples have been built by them – brihadeshwar temple, Airateshwar temple, and Gangaikondacholapuram are some famous examples. These temples represent grandeur, and fine workmanship. Chola school of art also spread to south east Asia and influenced the architecture there. Bronze Nataraja also belongs to this period in Chidambram. This is one of the forms of Lord shiva. Cheras: not much is known about cheras, especially about their art and architecture. Even sangam literature has scarce details about this kingdom. Nonetheless, there were some tempes built by them in Dravidian style, for example vadakkunnathan temple is a world heritage site. Pandyas: Name of Pandyas is most popular for the organisation of Sangams in Madurai and origin of sangam literature. It is the most comprehensive account of Tamil history Pandyas also built some magnifucent temples – Meenakshi Temple in Madurai is a much revered one. Srivilliputhur temple is the official symbol of government of Tamil Nadu. The three dynasties, thus, left deep footprints in South India.
“Buddhism was not just a religious revolution, but a social revolution too.” Comment.
Ans) Buddha did not intend to establish new religious or social order. But the simplicity of his teaching of truth connected with masses in such a manner that Buddhism became a completely new approach to look at religion and society. It became a new religious and social order. Religious Revolution – Explanation of Sufferings through 4 simple noble truths and the the wheel of dhamma was understandable by ordinary people unlike the scriptures interpreted by priests only. – Focus was on ethical living of astangika marga rather than rituals, animal sacrifices, etc. – A great stress was led to individual search of the truth and authority of Vedas was challenged. Faith was given rational basis. – It preached atheism that is, there is no God that will help us in Moksha but we ourselves are the makers of our destiny. – Further proliferation of multiple sects (Hinayana, Mahayana, etc) in Buddhism brought out characteristically new religious approaches Social Revolution – Intimate connection between religion and society in those times led to the manifestation of Buddhism as egalitarian doctrine. It opposed caste and varna system, any form of hierarchy and discrimination. – Women were given equal status as men which was against the Shastras like Manusmriti (social code).
Use of Pali language as opposed to Sanskrit which could be read only by Priests, broke the monopoly over knowledge – Emphasis on ahimsa, avoidance of extremes led to establishment of peaceful society. – It became conducive to the of progress in the areas of art, architecture, sculpture, literature. Trade flourished and India’s political power spread far and wide in subcontinent. Therefore, It was not only religious and social revolution but also revolution in every sphere of human thought and action.
Ashoka is considered the greatest monarch to live in the first two millenia of recorded Indian history. Compare and contrast his achievements with Akbar the Great.
Ans) When one talks about Ancient and Medival period it is totallyincomplete without Ashoka and Akbar who have left huge effect on Indian History. Following are difference in their achivements – Military – Ashok was successful in Kalinga war whereas Akbar was successful in consolidating Agra to Gujrat and Agra to Bengal region. But, it is said that Ashok had largest army in the world whereas Akbar also had large army but including those of Feudatories. Religious – Ashok framed Dhamma Policy and followed Buddhism by playing a major role in spreading it in India as well as other countries (eg- Sri Lanka). Akbar started his own religion Din E lahi. Both of them did not forced people to follow any religion. Architecture – Ashok was successful in building many Stupas (eg- Sanchi Stupa). The use of stone started during his time. Akbar constructed various monuments (eg- Ibadat Khana) which is dome and arch type architecture unlike stone. Political – The concept of Centralization of power is clearly reflected during Ashok’s time. Well management of Feudatories is reflected during Akbar’s time i.e. Decentralization. Administration- Ashok was successful in implementing the concept of Mantri Parishad. Akbar brought new concept of Mansabdari, Bandobast system etc which affected the society to great extent.
1. “Prehistoric rock art of India represents socio-cultural milieu of early man.” – Elucidate.
(10 marks, 200 words)
Answer:
The candidate is expected to highlight (a) hunting and gathering activities of pre-historic
men, (b) the emergence of family organisation; (c) magico-ritual activities.
(a) The scenes depict such animals as boar, bison, deer etc. either being chased or hunted
with large bow and barbed arrows or with long barbed spear of stone. Besides hunting
big animals, the daily activities of the people included fishing, honey collection, fruit
gathering and mouse trapping.
(b) The paintings clearly indicate that in Mesolithic period, man was marching ahead
towards organised family life. It can be inferred from a painting depicting two women
with a small child playing close by. There is also a mourning scene around a dead child.
(c) It is believed that paintings probably had magico-religious significance. It is suggested
by a painting of masked dancers along with animals. Scenes of men and women
dancing together either arm in arm or as a group also gives the same indication.
The technique of paintings was not so complicated. The colours used by them were derived
from the local minerals such as hematite, lime, etc. It is suggested that the earliest phase
(upper Palaeolithic) were represented by linear representation of animals with stick-like
human figures, whereas later (Mesolithic period) figures became more stylised with
decoration on the body and, in addition to animals, human fights and hunting sung become
more prominent.
(227 words)
2. Analyse the chief features of stupa architecture and highlight the significance of Sanchi
and Bharhut stupas.
(10 marks, 200 words)
Answer:
The Stupas represent the ancient symbols of Buddha worship and are the earliest
specimens of Buddhism art and architecture. There are different type of Stupas – Saririka,
Paribhogika and Uddesika.
Architecture of stupas includes – base, drum, medhi (terrace) harmika, a pillar bearing
Chhatra (umbrella), a railing called Vedika and gateways called Torana.
Sanchi and Bharhut stupas were the earliest of the stupa built by Asoka. These were low
circular brick mounds surrounded by a wooden railing with no decoration or carvings. But in
later Sunga-Satavahana times, these were converted into big monuments covered with
stone and nicely carved gateways.
An important feature of these later stupas is that, unlike the royal patronage during the
Mauryan times, these were renovated and sculptured with the help of donations received
from pilgrims coming from as distant areas as Patliputra, Kaushambi, Nasik, Ujjain etc. The
main architectural glory of Sanchi was the four ornamental gateways carved with symbols
associated with the life of Buddha or the Jataka stories. At Bharhut, the important feature is
the carved stone railings. These railings too have events of Buddha’s life or Jatak stories.
Besides this, they also contain numerous figures of Yaksas and Yakshis (protector of natural
forces), a feature that became an important part in later Buddhist art. There is also a
sculpture of Lakshmi, which appears to be the earliest image of the Goddess. The
compositions at Bharhut are overlapping and crowded but they represent the earliest
incidence of narrative art.
(245 words)
3. Discuss the important dance forms of south India and specify the different
characteristics of Bharatnatyam and Kathakali dances.
(10 marks, 200 words)
Answers:
Indian dances evolved primarily as a part of religious rituals at the temples and involved
story telling mainly about gods and goddess, drawn on epics and purana. Expression is the
key note of every dance form.
Candidate is expected write about 30-35 words on each of the important dance forms of
south India, viz. Bharatanatyam, Kathakali, Mohiniattam, Kuchipudi and Yaksagana (last one
is not included in list of 8 classical dances of India, but is an important dance.
Difference between Kathakali and Bharatanatyam
In Bharatanatyam, a solo female dancer presents a number of items based on Bhakti
Sringar (Divine love) in particular pattern from Alarippu (invocation) to thillana (fast dance).
Kathakali on the other hand, is a dance-cum-drama, having predominantly a male dancer.
Costumes of two dance forms also differ. Bharatanatyam dancer’s costume is both grand
and elegant will radiant jewellery. Heavy hair make up gives special appearance to the
dancer. Whereas the Kathakali dancer’s dress is noted for towering head gear and wide
skirt. Finally, while Bharatanatyam is characterised more by hip movements and bent knee
postures along with different mudras/gestures, Kathakali is marked by brisk and swift
movements
Mentioning the important sites, enumerate the prominent features of Jain Temple Architecture.
Approach:
List the prominent features of Jain Temple architecture that distinguishes it from other architecture.
List the important sites of Jain Temple Architecture.
Answer:
Jains were prolific temple builders like the Hindus. Jain temples and their sacred shrines are found
across India.
Some of the sites are:
The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in Bihar, like Pavapuri..
In Deccan, Ellora and Aihole, are important Jain pilgrimage sites.
In Central India ,Deogarh, Khajuraho, Chanderi, Gwalior, have some excellent examples of Jain
Temples.
Karnataka has rich heritage of Jain shrines and at Sravana Belagola the famous statue of
Gomteshwara, the granite statue of Lord Bahubali which stands 18m , is the world's tallest
monolithic free standing structure.
Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since early times. The two most prominent
Jain temples are the Ranakpur Temple near Udaipur and the Mount Abu Temple (Dilwara Temple),
famous for their unique patterns on every ceiling, and the graceful bracket figures along the domed
ceilings.
The great Jain pilgrimage site in the Shatrunjay hills near Palitana in Kathiawar, Gujarat is imposing
with the scores of temples clustered together.
Jain temples have several features that distinguish them from other temples in India.
Jain Temples have numerous pillars having a well-structured design.
The roofs of these temples are pointy domes and wherever there is a dome, the pillars are missing to give an octagonal shape.
In many temples we see, four faced or Chaumukh design; whereas in Hindu temples the basic design is garabgriha and mandapa
The garbhgriha at Hindu temple means house of God ; whereas the Jain Temple is not a house of
God but where the Tirthankaras gives teaching
These were temples within a temple, divided into sanctums and surrounded by chapels and shrines.
Extensive use of white marble eg Ranakpur, Mount Abu Temple
5. Why is the Gupta period called as the Golden Age of ancient India? Explain with examples.
Approach:
First of explain the meaning of Golden Age in brief.
Then bring out why Gupta age is called Golden age of Indian history bringing out development from some prominent fields with special reference to arts and (sculpture, paintings, architecture etc.) and literature.
Answer:
The term Golden period refers to that phase of human history in which progress of very high order was witnessed in various spheres of life. During Gupta Age such progress was witnessed in the field of architecture, sculpture, administration, judicial-legal system, economy and technology and literature.
Some of the prominent noticeable areas which exemplified Gupta Period as Golden Age can be:
Sculpture- With the Gupta period India entered upon the classical phase of sculpture. Some of the
outstanding features and examples of sculpture of the Gupta Age are-
The images of Gupta age represent a fine synthesis between the symbolism of Kushana period and
the nudity of early medieval age.
The art of Bharhut, Amravati, Sanchi and Mathura came closer and closer; melting into one.
Life size images are the most wonderful pieces of sculpture of this age.
The magnificent red sandstone image of Buddha from Mathura, the image of standing Buddha from Sarnath showing different mudras are masterpiece.
Architecture- The Gupta Age, being an age of intense religion interests, saw the construction of many
temples and religious architectures. Some prominent examples can be:
Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh in Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh is considered the best. The other
structures of the period include the Vishnu Temple of Tigawa in Jabalpur district, the Siva Temple of
Bhumra in Madhya Pradesh, the Temple of Parvati in the former Ajaigarh state, and the Buddhist
shrines of Bodh Gaya and Sanchi.
Among the brick temples, the most famous one is the temple at Bhitargaon in Kanpur district of
Uttar Pradesh.
Paintings- The fresco-paintings on the walls and ceilings of the world-famous Ajanta caves are the
brightest examples of that refined art. The paintings in Ellora and Bagh Caves were also of high standard.
Literature- Kalidasa composed Meghdutam, Ritusamharam, Abhigyanshakuntalam and many more gems of Indian dramas and poetry. Shudraka wrote Madyakatikkam, Vishakhadutta composed Mudrarakshasa and Dev Chandragupta.
Science and technology- This period witnessed Aryabhatta who calculated the radius of earth and
proposed heliocentric universe. Varahmirha introduced Indian lunar calendar. Brahmagupta wrote
Brahmastupa sidhhanta and talked about gravitational pull.
The foundation of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century A.D. marks the beginning of another era. Art,
science and literature flourished greatly during their time. The iconographic art works of this age served
as ideal models of artistic expression for later centuries, not only in India but also beyond its border.
The conception of bhakti did away with the elite tradition of Sanskrit and accepted language of the
common man. Elucidate by highlighting the role of Bhakti movement in the evolution of literature in
regional Indian languages.
Approach:
First of all write briefly when and how evolution of modern language started.
Then write briefly about Bhakti movement.
Then bring out how Bhakti movement shaped and helped in evolution of different languages giving
some examples and order in which it spread leading to development of languages.
Answer:
The evolution of modern languages can be traced around 1000 A.D. when local differences in Prakrit
grew more pronounced, which later came to be known as Apabhramsa. These languages, conditioned by
the regional, linguistic and ethnic environment, assumed different linguistic characteristics.
The most powerful trend of medieval Indian literature between 1000 and 1800 A.D. is devotional (bhakti)
poetry which is a poetic approach to religion and an ascetic approach to poetry. It is poetry of
connections – connecting the worldly with the divine, and as a result, the old form of secular love poetry began to have a new meaning in all languages. The rise of bhakti poetry gave rise to regional languages
(Bhasa).
The power of ancient bhakti poetry in Tamil set in motion a pan-Indian efflorescence. After Tamil,
Pampa’s great court epics were composed in Kannada in the 10th century. Devotional literature in
Kannada, the Vachanas (sayings) of the various saints of the Krishna, Rama and Shiva cults, is well known.
Chronologically, Marathi, the close successor of Kannada, became the next venue for bhakti. Gyaneswar (1275 A.D.) is the first and foremost bhakti poet in Marathi. And then it is Gujarati in the 12th century.
Gujarati poets like Narsi Mehta and Premananda occupy a prominent place in the galaxy of the Vaishnava poets.
Afterwards, the sequential order is as follows: Kashmiri, Bengali, Assamese, Manipuri, Oriya, Maithili, Braj, Avadhi and other languages of India. Hindi literature, with its supra-regional character, attracted Namdev (Marathi) and Guru Nanak (Punjabi) and others to write in Hindi, which by then had developed into a conglomeration of many languages and dialects, and came to be known as an umbrella language.
Thus, the conception of bhakti did away with the elite tradition of Sanskrit and accepted the more
acceptable language of the common man as justified by Kabir saying that Sanskrit is like water of a well stagnant, Bhasa is like flowing water.
By the twelfth century A.D., Buddhism practically disappeared from the land of its birth while Jainism
continued to be influential in some parts of India. Explain why.
Approach:
Give an introduction about Buddhism and Jainism.
Give a detailed account as to how and why Buddhism practically disappeared while Jainism still
prevailed in some parts of India.
Answer:
Buddhism originated in the eastern part of India in 563 BCE. More or less at the same time, Jainism, with
almost similar thoughts, was developing in the same part of India. The founder of Jainism, Lord Mahavira
was a contemporary of Lord Buddha, the founder of Buddhism.
Buddhism crossed the frontiers of its motherland and went to other parts of the Indian subcontinent,
Central Asia, far eastern countries, and parts of North America and Europe as well. But by the twelfth
century AD, Buddhism practically disappeared from the land of its birth. Reasons being:
Internal Factors
Division among the Buddhists - Division into various splinter groups like ‘Hinayana’, ‘Mahayana’,
‘Vajrayana’, ‘Tantrayana’ and ‘Sahajayana’ led Buddhism to lose its originality. The simplicity of
Buddhism was lost and it was becoming complex.
Corruption in Buddhist Sanghas - The monks and followers started to live a life of luxury and
enjoyment. They came to lead a life of indiscipline.
Use of Sanskrit language – Pali and Prakrit was later on replaced by Sanskrit. Sanskrit was a complex language, hardly understood by common people. People rejected what they could not understand.
Buddha worship - Image worship was started in Buddhism by the Mahayana Buddhists. This mode of worship was a violation of the Buddhist principles. This led to Buddhism becoming increasingly
similar to Hinduism.
External Factors
Role of Hindu preachers – The bhakti saints, philosophers and theologians like Adi Shankaracharya started to re-organize and reform Hinduism. Further, Hindus accepted Buddha as the incarnation of Lord Vishnu thus making Buddhism a part of Hinduism.
Invasions - Huna leaders like Mihirakula opposed non-violence completely. They killed the Buddhists residing in the north-western part of India. The Muslim invasion of India almost wiped out Buddhism.
Such invasions forced the Buddhist monks to seek asylum and shelter in Nepal and Tibet.
However, Jainism, being an austere religion compared to Buddhism survived because of the following reasons:
Lesser conflict with Hinduism – Hinduism viewed Buddhism, not Jainism, as its primary religious
rival. Jainism being an austere religion did not have a large following.
Use of Prakrit language – Jainism started its teachings in Prakrit and continued with it. It was an easy to understand local language.
Followed by moneylenders, trader and merchant class - They used their money to advance their
status as well as their faith.
Lesser division, lesser corruption – Jainism divided into Svetamber and Digamber only. No further
divisions took place.
Hence, over a period of time, while Buddhism disappeared from the Indian soil, Jainism survived in India, with its teachings intact, mostly untouched by the overwhelming philosophy and practices of Hinduism.
Mention the salient features of theist and athiest traditions of ancient Indian philosophical systems.
Approach:
Start the answer with a brief discussion on ancient Indian philosophical systems.
Name some theist traditions and give their salient features.
Name some atheist traditions and give their salient features.
No need to explain all traditions in detail.
Answer:
Ancient Indian Philosophy is generally classified into 6 orthodox schools (Nyaya, Yoga, Samkhya,
Vaisheshika, Purva Mimansa and Uttar Mimansa) and 4 heterodox (Charvak, Buddhism, Jainism and
Aajivika) schools. Orthodox schools recognize the authority of Vedas while heterodox schools don’t
believe in the authority of Vedas.
Out of these ten systems, nine are atheistic traditions as there is no place for God in them. Only Uttar
Mimansa, also called as Vedanta, has a place for God in it since its very inception. Salient features of
theistic tradition of ancient Indian philosophical system are:
Believed in the existence of God (Brahman) – propagated idealistic view of life.
Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal.
Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion. Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards must be
renounced.
Bondage is subjection to Samsara, the cycle of death and rebirth.
Liberation is deliverance from this cycle.
Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation.
Remaining nine philosophical schools come under atheistic tradition. Salient features of these include:
Generally they are either silent on existence or reject the existence of a personal God, creator God,
or a God with attributes.
On salvation or self-actualization – their focus was on the method of discipline like exercise, yoga,
meditation, etc. though Charvak completely rejects salvation theory.
The world has always existed and is without beginning or end.
Most of these traditions propagated materialistic view of life – addressed the realistic aspect of
human life e.g. sufferings in life (Buddhism), enjoyment (Charvak), logical realism (Nyaya).
Scientific, rationalist and materialistic outlook.
